Anil Kumar Sinha, IAS (Retd.)is the Founder and Vice-Chairman, Bihar State Disaster Management Authority (BSDMA), Patna; Founder and Executive Director, National Institute of Disaster Management, Govt. of India, New Delhi, and Founder and Programme Advisor, International Recovery Platform/UNDP, Kobe, Japan.

Komal Priya Singh is a Field Correspondent for Know Disasters.

2021 marked two decades of the Bhuj Earthquake, a 7.7 magnitude earthquake that devastated Gujarat causing extensive damage to life and property. It also marks the tenth anniversary of the Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE), a triple mega-disaster that shook Japan with its unprecedented scale of destruction. This paper commemorates the comparative study of two different countries – India and Japan who faced highly intensive earthquakes and experienced the journey towards resilience in their ways. There have been several changes that took place over the past two decades in infrastructure resilience, risk identification, reduction, preparedness and disaster risk finance in India and Japan. Japan is technologically advanced, developed and yet the most hazardous country in the world whereas, India, a diverse and developing country, has its fair share of vulnerability due to its geographical location.

For the past two decades, these two countries have been working with global partners to understand the impact, response, and recovery from the incident of mega-disaster to identify larger lessons for disaster risk management (DRM). Even though disasters will always be unexpected, if not unprecedented, planning for disasters has benefits before and after they occur. After decades of the Bhuj and Great East Japan earthquakes, to strengthen the resilience of infrastructure, preparedness, and finance for the next disaster, the national and local governments, infrastructure developers and operators, businesses and industries, communities and households in India and Japan are building back better systems by pre-arranging mechanisms for risk reduction, response and continuity through collaboration and mutual support. Many adaptations are made to the policy and regulatory frameworks after these major earthquakes.

In India, the Bhuj Earthquake led to a paradigm shift in government policy from relief and humanitarian assistance-oriented post-disaster intervention to pro-active prevention, mitigation and pre-disaster preparedness planning. A comprehensive Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy was declared in September 2002. The legal and regulatory requirement for effective disaster management resulted in the enactment of the Gujarat State Disaster Management Act in March 2003. Gujarat became the first State in India to enact an act for disaster management whereas the Great East Japan Earthquake gave rise to the expectation for DRM in the country as Japan had always mainstream build back better.

Comparative Analysis

Case Study I: The Kutch Earthquake, 2001

The Kutch Earthquake of January 26, 2001, was a devastating event and posed a massive challenge to the people, the community and the government due to its magnitude, spread and complexity. Thousands of villages were devastated. Cities were in ruins. Millions of people were affected: 13,805 persons lost their lives, 167,000 persons were injured, and over a million homes were damaged or destroyed. There was enormous damage to economic and social infrastructure. Even those holding key positions in the local administration were affected and traumatised. The initial moments, hours and even days were full of uncertainty, shock and confusion. Yet, the people, the government and the society rose to the occasion. The State Government launched massive rescue and relief operations with the help of the armed forces, NGOs, the Central Government, other State Governments and the international community. There was an unprecedented mobilisation of human and material resources. Essential services such as communication, electricity, water supply and transport, were restored quickly. Relief materials, medical services and temporary shelters were provided to millions of affected people. Efforts were made to ensure that the transition from the relief phase to recovery was smooth and short. Even when relief activities were undertaken, the need for sustainable recovery was addressed. In a few months, the government conceptualised and formulated schemes for reconstruction and rehabilitation. A comprehensive reconstruction programme was introduced to restructure the physical infrastructure and rebuild the economic and social fabric. Many departments and other agencies had to be associated with this gigantic task. The GSDMA helped to formulate and monitor the implementation of a comprehensive and complex reconstruction programme. It accomplished this task with remarkable success.

Gujarat Earthquake Reconstruction Programme

The reconstruction of houses is probably the most innovative aspect of the Gujarat reconstruction programme. It was a participatory programme with an emphasis on multi-hazard resistant construction and capacity building. The basic approach was owner-driven reconstruction. People reconstruct their houses themselves with the assistance and facilitation of the government. NGOs were associated right from the beginning. To facilitate public-private partnership, a framework was conceptualised and a formal procedure was prescribed at a very early stage of the reconstruction programme. Consequently, there was an extremely smooth, healthy and effective exchange and cooperation among many public agencies and NGOs. Even the private sector and industries were involved in this endeavour.

The salient aspects of the reconstruction efforts were:

•  A comprehensive reconstruction and rehabilitation programme
• Medium and long-term perspectives Excellent public-private partnership Awareness, capacity building and information dissemination
• Involvement of expertise and specialised knowledge of institutions and individuals
• Effective community participation

Reconstruction of the Four Towns of Kutch District

Anjar, Bhachau, Bhuj and, Rapar were other examples of a systematic approach with a vision, administrative acumen and political courage. A scientific approach was adopted. Several technical studies were undertaken. Area development authorities were created. Professional agencies were engaged in preparing development plans and town-planning schemes. A variety of data was collected. Thousands of plots were surveyed. Detailed infrastructure plans were prepared. Measures were taken to widen roads in the old cities of Bhuj and Anjar. Elaborate public consultations were organised. The Kutch Earthquake Reconstruction Programme had the benefit of the experiences of those who worked earlier in the context of the Latur and other recent earthquakes. It derived considerably from the experience of the 1993 Latur Earthquake (Maharashtra) programme and expanded and intensified efforts in respect of capacity building and long-term disaster management aspects.

International organisations and other agencies also brought with them experiences and learnings from across the world. The fact, however, remains that even when the task of reconstruction appeared massive and challenging, the State Administration did not hesitate to keep in view medium-term and long-term aspects, particularly mitigation measures that are more difficult to undertake during an emergency.

Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority, with a small band of dedicated functionaries, undertook innovative measures and a range of activities relating to information dissemination, building codes, insurance, capacity building, policy and legal framework and community awareness.

Bhuj Earthquake: Innovation in Governance

The Bhuj Earthquake is the opportunity the government took in rebuilding the State on sustainable disaster-resistant foundations. In a few months, the government conceptualised and formulated schemes for reconstruction and rehabilitation. The Government of Gujarat responded rapidly with emergency relief services to mitigate the loss to lives, livelihoods and property, and continued in the emergency-phase mode until mid-March 2001 to ensure services reached the last mile. It distributed 27 packages for stakeholders at different levels, i.e. agriculture, tourism, etc.

Relief and reconstruction was a highly participated event due to pressure on the government. Major political implications that took place in the earthquake-hit State was the replacement of then CM Keshubhai Patel by Narendra Modi in a span of six months due to the sluggish response and rescue work plagued by callousness. Narendra Modi started the rehabilitation phase to build back better with owner-driven reconstruction to achieve the long-term goal of sustainable disaster-resilient development. The consultative process started with the help of local resources.

Remarkable Recovery

At the time of the disaster, Gujarat, one of the most industrialised States in India, was still reeling from severe flooding in 1998–99 and punishing droughts in 1999–2000. The earthquake impacted mostly poorer parts of the State, causing many people to live in makeshift shelters a year after the quake but, the region was eventually able to make a remarkable recovery.

Financial aid poured in from around the world and a massive reconstruction and rehabilitation programme was launched in the affected areas. Tax-free zones boosted economic recovery, and companies moved into the area in response. The port town of Mundra, which escaped devastation in the earthquake, grew rapidly into a major industrial hub and now has the largest private port in India. Towns and villages were rebuilt with better housing. In Bhuj, water supply and underground drainage were laid, ring roads and an airport were constructed, and homes were demolished so that roads could be widened.

According to the Gujarat State Disaster Management Authority, accomplishments of the recovery included:

• 3,391 public buildings repaired
• 640 km of State Highways and 3,061 km of rural roads repaired
• 2,750 km of water supply pipelines laid and 222 deep tube wells drilled,

The Strongest Comeback Ever

As much as the devastation, what marks the 20th anniversary of the Gujarat Earthquake is the opportunity the government took in rebuilding the State on sustainable disaster-resistant foundations and focusing on Build Back Better. While many believed that Gujarat would take years to get back to normal, the massive rehabilitation and reconstruction brought a resilient Gujarat back from the rubble. Bhuj, the epicentre of the earthquake, managed to emerge strong after the disaster.

Governance: Policy and Legal Environment Institutional Mechanism

Introducing Measures for Disaster Management

With the implementation of effective steps for introducing a legal framework, Gujarat became a pioneer in India in introducing measures for Long-term Disaster Management. The newly established GSDMA undertook wide-ranging activities relating to capacity building, disaster management plans and preparedness for emergency response. The Government of Gujarat announced the Gujarat State Disaster Management Policy in September 2002.

The policy envisages several objectives such as:

• To assess risks and vulnerabilities associated with various disasters
• To develop appropriate disaster prevention and mitigation strategies
• To provide clarity on roles and responsibilities for all stakeholders
• To ensure coordination among agencies related to disaster management
• To create awareness and preparedness, and to provide advice and training to agencies involved in disaster management
• To strengthen the capacities of the community
• To establish and maintain pro-active programmes of risk reduction
• To develop and implement programmes for risk-sharing and risk transfer
• To address general issues in disaster management
• To develop disaster management as a distinct management discipline

Gujarat State Disaster Management Act, 2003

Gujarat is the first State in India to introduce a State Disaster Management Act in March 2003. The comprehensive draft was prepared after wide consultation with stakeholders and an elaborated study of similar legislation in different countries. The Act gives statutory status to GSDMA and envisages a multi-hazard approach to disaster management. It is based on the premise that disaster management is the responsibility of all State departments and agencies. It enumerates the powers, functions and duties of various departments and functionaries at the State, district and sub-district levels. It also indicates the duties of community groups, youth organisations, industries, private and public sector entities, voluntary agencies and citizens. It provides for the declaration of an area as a disaster-affected area. The Act also prescribes offences and penalties.

Response

Establishment of Regional Emergency Response Centres

Countries frequently prone to major disasters have set up specialised Emergency Response Centres (ERC) that house trained personnel and response equipment. Hence, the State Government decided to carry out a study on the Establishment of Emergency Response Centres. The objective of this assignment was to ascertain the feasibility of establishing emergency response centres in Gujarat, and in turn, to determine the requirements in each of such centres to provide more effective and timely response to disasters. The study recommended establishing five such Regional Emergency Response Centres (ERCs) at strategic locations across the State. These ERCs were to be located at Gandhinagar/Ahmedabad, Surat, Vadodara, Rajkot and Gandhidham. Consequently, the State Government established five Regional Emergency Response Centres (ERCs) at the suggested locations.

The State Government procured equipment/vehicles for these ERCs and handed over the responsibility of the operation and maintenance of ERCs and its associated equipment to the Fire & Emergency Services of the respective Municipal Corporations of the State as per their location.

Emergency Response Units

An ERU was established at the Ahmedabad Fire Brigade. CORDAID, a Netherlands-based NGO, provided equipment meant for advanced search and rescue capability in disaster situations.

The important categories of equipment are:

• Trauma Care Unit (ambulance with a life-support system)
• Emergency Medical and Rescue Unit
• Hook-Arm Chassis and Containers
• HAZMAT Van
• Command Unit (useful for immediate setting up of a command/communication post).

Multi-disciplinary Training in Search and Rescue Operations

The GSDMA, with the help of ICET, Netherlands, and the AMC, organised a one-month training in the Netherlands and Germany in search and rescue and emergency medical services for 49 fire, police and medical services personnel.

Upgrading the Emergency Response System and Search and Rescue Capability

An important lesson learnt during the earthquake is that we need to upgrade our search and rescue capability and improve upon the existing system of emergency response. Foreign search and rescue teams arrived with state-of-the-art equipment that was more effective than the existing equipment available in India.

Provincial Fire Service in Gujarat

Since fire services have the potential to undertake effective search and rescue operations, a committee was set up by the Government of Gujarat to review the recommendations of the Standing Committee constituted by the Government of India to look into the best practices in other States. Earlier, the fire services were with municipal corporations and municipalities. There was no integrated fire service in the State.

Capacity Building

Establishment of Earthquake Observatories and Accelerographs

To help improve the status of earthquake monitoring, a group was constituted under the chairmanship of A.S. Arya to analyse the need for seismological instrumentation for Gujarat. The Group comprises experts from the IMD, IIT, Roorkee, and the Gujarat Engineering Research Institute (GERI). Based on their recommendations, GSDMA planned to set up/upgrade observatories at 16 locations and accelerographs at 40 locations. Instrument specifications have been prepared by GERI in consultation with IMD and IIT, Roorkee.

Recently, the government has announced that India will have 35 more earthquake observatories by the end of 2021. It aims to add 100 more earthquake observatories by 2026. Currently, India has only 115 earthquake observatories. The National Center for Seismology (under the Ministry of Earth Sciences) is the nodal agency of the Government of India for monitoring earthquake activity in the country.

The Establishment of Seismological Research Institute

The vision of the institute is to understand the science of earthquake occurrence and use this knowledge to save lives and minimise damage due to earthquakes. The strategic thrust is to undertake study, research and training in seismology.

Establishment of the Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM)

The Governing Body of GSDMA in its meeting dated March 12, 2002, decided to establish the Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management (GIDM). The vision is to make available to all stakeholders the knowledge and skills required to develop their competencies, gain appropriate understanding and accomplish appropriate disaster management tasks while establishing and strengthening overall disaster management institutional capacities at the national, State and local levels.

Community-based Disaster Preparedness Programme

The GSDMA, in collaboration with the UNDP, initiated a community-based disaster preparedness programme known as the Disaster Risk Management (DRM) Programme. This was part of a national programme initiated by the Government of India. The programme initially envisaged covering 3,598 villages in 44 talukas of 11 districts. Villages were identified based on their vulnerability to different types of disasters. Subsequently, the programme was expanded to cover about 4,174 villages in 14 districts. The objective was to ensure long-term capacity building of the community and reduce their dependence on external sources. Before the above programme, the GSDMA had initiated a programme called Affat Sajjata Sena (Disaster Preparedness Brigade) in 484 earthquake-affected villages. This also envisaged the involvement of village youth, their capacity building and training in earthquake-resistant construction.

Information, Education and Communication (IEC) Activities

The GSDMA undertook numerous activities related to IEC. Some of these were over one million pamphlets on earthquake-resistant construction were circulated in the earthquake-affected areas of Gujarat, four Shake Table demonstrations and many video shows were conducted for awareness generation and confidence building.

Audio cassettes by folk singers such as Bhikhudan Gadhavi and Shabudin Rathod were prepared to create awareness through music and humour. A video cassette in the form of folk dances called Bhavai was prepared on the construction and retrofitting of houses, full-page advertisements in local dailies were released, indicating appropriate methodologies to be adopted for the reconstruction of houses, display of messages on multi-hazard resistant construction and retrofitting on 600 State transport buses in the five worst-affected districts, hoardings of seven kinds were placed at strategic locations in the entire state of Gujarat for awareness creation, and brochures were prepared in Gujarati.

Review of Disaster Management Plans

District-level disaster management plans of all the 25 districts were reviewed by GSDMA and suggestions and guidelines were issued for further improvement. The existing cyclone contingency plan at the State level was also reviewed by GSDMA. Recommendations were made for modification keeping in view the provisions of the Disaster Management Act. Guidelines for preparations of local-level cyclone contingency plans were prepared and circulated among different districts.

Improvement of Control Rooms

The GSDMA, with the help of international experts in disaster management, reviewed the status of control rooms at the State and district levels. Interim guidelines for control room design and operations were circulated to the districts. They contain details of equipment, location of the control room information centre, its function, staff, etc. A model layout plan for a control room was also circulated.

State Disaster Resource Network (SDRN)

During the Kutch Earthquake, a large amount of equipment had to be deployed. This is inevitable at the time of major disasters. Keeping this in view, the SDRN was created. The objective is to have village-level data for the thousands of villages in the State. The database includes the village profile, hazard scenario, demographic features, available resources, details of village disaster management teams and lists of contact persons. The SDRN provides for the creation and updating of the village, taluka, district and State-level disaster resource inventory. The Government of Gujarat has a State-wide fibre optic wide area network, the Gujarat State Wide Area Network (GSWAN) that connects all government offices up to the taluka level. The SDRN is hosted on the GSWAN and is available in both English and Gujarati. The Government of India also introduced the India Disaster Resource Network (IDRN) which is an inventory of equipment, both in the public and private sector for deployment during a disaster.

Emergency Equipment for Municipalities

Most of the municipalities do not have adequate equipment and trained personnel to meet fire emergencies. Measures were initiated to provide emergency equipment meant not only for fire emergencies but also for search and rescue in disaster situations to about 100 municipalities in the State.

Recovery

A Reconnaissance Survey on Disposal of Debris

To ascertain the nature of the use and disposal of debris, GSDMA undertook a study that covered 79 villages across 12 talukas of Rajkot, Surendranagar and Jamnagar districts. The methodology involved discussions with villagers and field-level officials and reconnaissance surveys. It was found that materials such as wood and iron rods were reused, whereas other types of debris such as broken bricks and stones were used for widening of roads, erecting or augmenting field boundaries to check soil erosion and filling of low-lying areas. Water bodies like water ponds and tanks were not affected by debris disposal. Pieces of wood were used as fuel in some cases. The general finding was that debris disposal practices in the villages did not have adverse effects on the environment.

Benefit Monitoring

A process of benefit monitoring was introduced. An international consultancy firm, KPMG, was assigned to evaluate how and to what extent the intended benefits of the project components have accrued to the target groups. It was an attempt to go beyond the routine review of progress in terms of numbers and to look at quantitative aspects and ascertain if the earthquake-affected persons have received the benefits.

Objectives were to:

• Develop a benefit monitoring framework to record changes and developments taking place as a result of GERP interventions Develop a benefit monitoring system that will enable two-way communication for each project entity for effective knowledge sharing and mutual learning
• Monitor and verify the derived benefits from the project interventions on an ongoing basis over a period of two years
• Provide feedback on the project design, implementation and derived benefits to enable all stakeholders to review projects and affect mid-course corrections where possible.

Scope:

• To cover all the 16 sectors under GERP during the implementation and after completion of the project period.

Methodology: Quantitative Surveys:

• First Survey: Covering 8,000 beneficiaries (June-July 2003);
• Second Survey: Covering 4,000 beneficiaries (March-April 2004);
• Third Survey: Covering 8,000 beneficiaries (November-December 2004).

Innovations and Good Practices

Emergency Communication

GSDMA initiated a study on early hazard warning and emergency communication systems. It addresses the nature of the emergency communication system required and the modalities of disseminating early warning. It is necessary to have an effective system of emergency communication integrated into the existing systems and has the desired level of redundancy.

Studies on Important Aspects of Disaster Management

GSDMA sponsored several studies on vital aspects of disaster management. These studies focus on long-term aspects such as hazard assessment, mitigation, preparedness and response. Consultants were selected through international competitive bidding. The idea was to have state-of-the-art and world-class knowledge and expertise for the studies.

The following studies were undertaken:

• Emergency Communication and Early Warning System
• Seismic Microzonation
• Hazard, Risk and Vulnerability Analysis Damage and Loss Assessment Methodology
• Review of Building Codes
• Establishment of Regional Disaster Response Centres
• Establishment of Gujarat Institute of Disaster Management
• Establishment of the Institute of Seismological Research.

Social Impact Assessment

Social impact assessment studies were undertaken through independent organisations such as the M.S. University, Vadodara, and the Gujarat Institute of Development Research, Ahmedabad, continuingly to monitor the social dimensions of the earthquake reconstruction programme. The focus was on the identification of needs and to ascertain the impact of the programme in addition to restoring the social welfare of the affected persons. The studies were carried out in the worst-affected districts of Kutch, Patan, Surendranagar, Rajkot and Jamnagar. Based on the findings of the studies, many remedial measures are being taken from time to time to rectify deficiencies, if any, in the implementation of the programme.

CASE STUDY II: The Great East Japan Earthquake, 2011

On March 11, 2011, a magnitude 9.0 quake struck off the upper east bank of Japan, close to the Tohoku region. The quake’s power sent a wave rushing towards the Tohoku shore, a dark surge of water which wiped away the entire settlement. Sea walls were destroyed, and 20,000 lives were lost. The intensity of destruction to housing, infrastructure, industry and agriculture was high in Fukushima, Iwate, and Miyagi prefectures. Notwithstanding the many thousands who lost their homes, the tremor and wave added to a mishap at the Fukushima Daiichi Nuclear Power Plant that needed mass evacuation.

The severity and complexity of the cascading disasters were not anticipated. The events during and following the Great East Japan Earthquake (GEJE) showed how ruinous and complex a low-probability, high-impact disaster can be. However, although the impacts of the triple-disaster were devastating, Japan’s legacy of DRM likely reduced losses. Its structural investments in warning systems and infrastructure were effective in many cases, and preparedness training helped them act and evacuate quickly. The large spatial impact of the disaster and the region’s largely rural and elderly population posed additional challenges for response and recovery.

The region has begun to come back to its normal state however, the structure may look different from before. After years of rapidly-implemented temporary prefabricated housing, the population has been resettled in permanent homes and 30,000 new units of public housing. Restoration of damaged infrastructure in different sectors – railways, roads and seawalls has been completed already.

Lessons Learnt from the Mega Disaster

Resilient Infrastructure

The GEJE had severe impacts on critical lifelines — infrastructures and facilities that provide essential services such as transportation, communication, sanitation, education, and medical care. Impacts of mega-disasters include not only damages to assets (direct impacts), but also disruptions of key services and the resulting social and economic effects (indirect impacts). For example, it caused a water supply disruption for up to 500,000 people in Sendai city and completely submerged the city’s water treatment plant. Lack of access to water and sanitation had a ripple effect on public health and other emergency services, impacting response and recovery. Smart investment in infrastructure resilience can help minimise both direct and indirect impacts, reducing lifeline disruptions. (World Bank: Learning from Mega Disasters, 2021).

Water Infrastructure

The retrofitting of existing systems with seismic resilience upgrades, enhancing business continuity planning for sanitation systems, and creating a geographic information system (GIS)-based asset management system that allows for quick identification and repair of damaged pipes and other assets took place. The previous experience of the 1995 Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake (GHAE) led Japan to invest in earthquake-resistant piping in water supply and sanitation systems. The commonly used earthquake-resistant ductile iron pipe (ERDIP) did not show any damage during the GEJE. The internal policy was further amended, such as decentralising emergency decision-making and providing training for local communities to set up emergency water supplies without utility workers to speed up recovery efforts.

Japan’s central disaster legislation, the DCBA (Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act) was amended in 2012, with a specific focus on the need to reopen roads for emergency response. Quick road repairs were made possible after the GEJE in part due to the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) emergency action plans, the swift action of the rapid response agency Technical Emergency Control Force (TEC-FORCE) and, prearranged agreements with private construction companies for emergency recovery work. (World Bank: Learning from Mega Disasters, 2021).

Schools

The major update made to the policies on the safety of non-structural elements in schools, given the need for higher resilience standards for their function as post-disaster evacuation centres. Japan updated seismic resilience standards for schools, integrating measures against different risks and vulnerabilities revealed after GEJE.

Building regulations, standards and professional training modules were updated, taking the lessons learned from GEJE. Since the establishment of the legal and regulatory framework for building safety in early 1900, Japan continued incremental efforts to create enabling environment for owners, designers, builders and building officials to make the built environment safer together.

Cultural heritage – The volunteer organisation, Shiryō-Net, was formed to help rescue and preserve heritage properties, and this network has now spread across Japan.

Risk Identification, Reduction, and Preparedness

Structural and non-structural disaster risk management measures were made after GEJE, such as the expansion of the emergency alert delivery system, preparedness maps, effective engagement of various stakeholders, conducting simulation drills regularly, and  RESAS (Regional Economy Society Analyzing System) which visualises big data including population movement and regional economic drivers. RESAS is being used by local governments to make evidence-based regional development plans, including those in areas affected by GEJE. This information is being used to inform planning and decision-making for COVID-19 business recovery at the firm and government levels.

The World Bank’s study on preparedness maps shows how seismic preparedness maps are used in Japan to communicate location-specific primary and secondary hazards from earthquakes, promoting preparedness at the community and household level. Preparedness maps are regularly updated after disaster events, and since 2011, Japan has promoted risk reduction activities to prepare for the projected maximum likely tsunami.

Business continuity planning (BCP) – As resilient industries in Japan demonstrates, after the GEJE, BCPs helped firms reduce disaster losses and recover quickly, benefiting employees, supply chains, and the economy at large. National policies in Japan promote the development of BCPs, including the 2013 Basic Act for National Resilience, which was developed after the GEJE and emphasises resilience as a shared goal across multiple sectors.

Disaster Risk Finance and Insurance

The GEJE illustrated the importance of clearly defining post-disaster financial roles and responsibilities among public and private actors to restore critical infrastructure rapidly. World Bank research on Catastrophe Insurance Programs for Public Assets highlights how the Japan Railway Construction, Transport and Technology Agency (JRTT) uses insurance to reduce the contingent liabilities of critical infrastructure to ease impacts to government budgets in the event of a mega-disaster. Advance agreements between the government, infrastructure owners and operators, and insurance companies clearly outline how financial responsibilities will be shared in the event of a disaster.

The Resilient Industries in Japan report highlights how diverse and comprehensive disaster risk financing methods are also important to promoting a resilient industry sector. After the GEJE, the Bank of Japan (BoJ) and local banks leveraged pre-arranged agreements to maintain liquidity, opening the first weekend after the disaster to help minimise economic disruptions. (World Bank: Learning from Mega Disasters, 2021).

Progress in Disaster Management Laws and Systems

There were various amendments in the laws that took place in Japan after the 2011 Earthquake such as Amendment of Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act on Reconstruction from Large-Scale Disasters, Amendment of the Acton Promotion of the Earthquake-proof Retrofit of Buildings Amendment of the Flood Control Act and River Act, Act on Special Measures for Land and Building Leases in Areas Affected by Large-scale Disaster, Amendment of the Act on Special Measures for Promotion of Nankai Trough Earthquake Disaster Management (Amendment of the Act on Special Measures for Promotion of Tohnankai and Nankai Earthquake Disaster Management), and Act on Special Measures against Tokyo Inland Earthquake.

Looking to the Future

Years after the GEJE and Bhuj Earthquakes, the measures taken, adopted and enhanced in these two countries are significant for seismic hazards and many other types of hazards faced around the globe in 2021. They set an example for building resilience and focusing on Build Back Better. The year 2021 finds the world amid multiple emergencies of the global COVID-19 pandemic, environmental and technological hazards, and climate change. In the era of climate change, disasters will increasingly be unprecedented, and so lessons learnt from the GEJE and Bhuj Earthquake can help countries prepare for low-probability high-impact disasters and planning under uncertain conditions in general.

The legal framework is what sets the layout of the governance in any country. In India, the Disaster Management Act was enacted in December 2005 after the Bhuj Earthquake 2001, making Gujarat a pioneer in establishing measures for disaster management. While in Japan, the turning point for strengthening the disaster management system came into effect in 1961 in response to the immense damage caused by Typhoon Vera, also known as Isewan Typhoon in 1959, it led to the enactment of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961, which formulates a comprehensive and strategic disaster management system. Thereafter, the disaster management system has been continuously reviewed and revised following lessons learned from large-scale disasters. The Great East Japan Earthquake, with an estimated casualty of 19,137 persons, triggered the creation of new agencies and the enactment of 58 new laws on recovery and reconstruction (Suzuki & Kaneko, 2013).

The involvement of reputed institutions and individuals with expertise and specialised knowledge is what makes the Bhuj Earthquake Reconstruction Programme spectacular. Twenty years on, remarkable progress has been made in building a swifter response and a resilient future. The WHO Safe Hospital Initiative, WHO Health Emergency and Disaster Risk Management Framework, The Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction, and other supporting global frameworks and the revision of the National Building Codes 2019, National Earthquake Risk Mitigation Programme and global platforms like Coalition of Disaster Resilient Infrastructure, are just a few examples of the paradigm shift in the way India approaches future risks and becomes disaster-ready.

The Bhuj Earthquake resulted in one of the most comprehensive endeavours in history with numerous initiatives. It is necessary to ensure that all such initiatives and innovative measures are further strengthened and consolidated so they are sustainable. At the same time, Japan has been sharing the experience and solutions to reduce disaster risk and providing the innovative idea to help build disaster-resilient nations.